Essay on Group Culture

Paper on Group Culture Paper on Group Culture Ashley Newton CS 204: Professional Presence Unit 7 Assignment October 13, 2014 Gathering Culture The Pennsylvania Institute of Certified Public Accountants (PICPA), is the second most established and fifth-biggest CPA association in the United States. Alliance with the PICPA speaks to duty to the CPA calling. Being an individual from the PICPA safeguards proficient and individual help. The association assists with refining your aptitudes, extend information, interface with similarly invested people, and accomplish greater and better things at each phase of your expert life. PICPA individuals access the most state-of-the-art courses and specialized assets, limits on assets, chances to associate with a large number of different experts, and more to propel their professions and improve the nature of administration to their organizations and customers. With more than 22,000 individuals, the PICPA is one of Pennsylvania’s head proficient associations for CPAs. The PICPA experience has been depicted as engaging, fortifying, fun, and important. Individuals from the PICPA remember people for open bookkeeping, industry, government, and instruction. They are accomplices, presidents, CEOs, administrators, supervisors, and business experts. The hierarchical structure of the PICPA is made out of a chamber, establishment of training and research, boards of trustees, sections, and PICPA staff. Enrollment of the PICPA is made out of eleven land parts over the express, each drove by a section president and record of officials. Morals is at the center of the CPA calling and is one reason CPAs are respected among the most confided in business experts. As a necessary segment of the CPA proceeding with proficient training system in Pennsylvania, yet additionally in light of the fact that CPAs have a severe code of expert morals and lead. Issues with respect to morals are frequently routinely in the news. CPAs are frequently a piece of these conversations. Association with the PICPA speaks to adherence to the Code of Professional Conduct. The PICPA follows the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) Code of Professional Conduct. These comprise of the standards and rules just as translations and other direction. A PICPA Professional Ethics Committee is answerable for examining protests against individuals and keep up the PICPA Code of Professional Conduct. As a major aspect of the PICPA enrollment, they offer assistance and assets for future CPAs. Upon graduation, applicants must meet two necessities to sit for the CPA Exam: get a bachelor’s certificate or higher from a certify school or college and finished at any rate 24 semester credits in bookkeeping subjects endorsed by the State Board of Accountancy. A pre-assessment will recognize scholarly lacks in your instruction preceding presenting a first time application for the CPA Examination. For data on the test content, the AICPA has a downloadable record accessible. Competitors who have graduated with 150 credits are required to finish one year of work understanding through work in government, industry, the scholarly world, or open practice inside five years of the date you apply for your permit. All experience must be of a gauge good to the State Board of Accountancy and checked by a person who is presently authorized to rehearse as a CPA in Pennsylvania. As a major aspect of the PICPA site, a PICPA Career Center page was built up. This connection contains work postings, business openings, and a temporary job catalog. Individuals have restrictive access to specific areas and can post open situations at an uncommon rate. Non-individuals may post advertisements without a rebate. A profession bank connect is additionally accessible to look for bookkeeping occupations outside of Pennsylvania. The PICPA Foundation for Education and Research gives a wide range of top notch programs picked to improve proficient capability and address convenient points. On location preparing openings are accessible to any part. They offer comfort and

Arieff on Liu Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Arieff on Liu - Essay Example It ought to be noticed that Liu has utilized her imaginative aptitudes not only to show them as a craftsman yet to uncover the shades of malice of the Chinese conventions. In the wake of moving to United States she delighted in the opportunity of communicating uninhibitedly through wall paintings, which in any case wouldn't have been conceivable on the off chance that she had been in China. She has utilized her craft as a weapon to oppose the abusive man centric arrangement of China. Her artistic creations manage the multifaceted issues like foot official and Western craftsmanship chronicled convention. The most striking style of her work of art is the multiplication of female characters from the photos she got from Chinese books. One such book was 'The Face of China', which was distributed in United States and had photos taken by outside travelers in China somewhere in the range of 1860 and 1912. She controlled the pictures in the photos and painted them on canvas by utilizing Weste rn style. She joined photos in her compositions, which was in any case debilitated in China. Also, a fine case of this is 'Inhabitant Alien', which is basically a Self-representation built on Green Card, which had a place with a settler Fortune Cookie pseudonym Hung Lieu. In this she utilizes her own distinguishing proof card photograph.

Bringing Down the (Lottery) House

Bringing Down the (Lottery) House If you enjoyed the story of the MIT Blackjack Team the movie 21 and/or the book on which it was based, Ben Mezrichs Bringing Down the House then youll really enjoy this recent story from WIRED. The story centers on MIT alum Mohan Srivastava 79. Srivastava, a Course 12 grad who later wrote the textbook on applied geostatistics, now runs his own consulting company in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. One day, the story goes, he won $3 on a tic-tac-toe scratch lottery ticket he received as a gift, and started thinking about how the algorithm behind the tickets worked. I remember telling myself that the Ontario Lottery is a multibillion-dollar-a-year business, he says. They must know what theyre doing, right? That night, however, he realized that the voice was right: The tic-tac-toe lottery was seriously flawed. It took a few hours of studying his tickets and some statistical sleuthing, but he discovered a defect in the game: The visible numbers turned out to reveal essential information about the digits hidden under the latex coating. Nothing needed to be scratched offâ€"-the ticket could be cracked if you knew the secret code. See if you can figure out the secret code within the unscratched Ontario Lottery ticket pictured here. Heres a hint: this is a winning ticket, and the tic-tac-toe occurs in the third game down in the right-hand column. When you give up, check out Srivastavas method. So, did Srivastava take the lottery for millions, like the MIT Blackjack Team took Las Vegas for millions? I remember thinking, Im gonna be rich! Im gonna plunder the lottery! he says. However, these grandiose dreams soon gave way to more practical concerns. Once I worked out how much money I could make if this was my full-time job, I got a lot less excited, Srivastava says. Id have to travel from store to store and spend 45 seconds cracking each card. I estimated that I could expect to make about $600 a day. Thats not bad. But to be honest, I make more as a consultant, and I find consulting to be a lot more interesting than scratch lottery tickets. Instead of secretly plundering the game, he decided to go to the Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation. Srivastava thought its top officials might want to know about his discovery. Who knows, maybe theyd even hire him to give them statistical advice. People often assume that I must be some extremely moral person because I didnt take advantage of the lottery, he says. I can assure you that thats not the case. Id simply done the math and concluded that beating the game wasn’t worth my time. Maybe theres something to be said for the old saying, The Lottery is a tax on people who are bad at math.

Racism And Slavery Black Or The Egg, Slavery Or Racism

Which came first, the chicken or the egg, slavery or racism? The question of whether racism is the root of slavery, or if slavery caused racism is an ongoing debate that throughout history historians has been batting to answer, and have yet to come to an agreement. Some people think that people were made slaves because of prejudice toward the color of their skin, therefore, racism caused slavery; others believe that people saw slaves as inferior to them, and therefore slavery caused racism. Jordan’s â€Å"The Mutual Causation of Racism and Slavery†, Morgan’s â€Å"The Paradox of Slavery and Freedom† and Bacon’s Rebellion helps us see where the separation between white and black slaves began in America. Slavery and racism are interconnecting, but by looking at the sources and articles, we can see that slavery caused racism. The article of Jordan’s â€Å"The Mutual Causation of Racism and Slavery† helps to look at not only two sides of the discussion, but also a third side, that both racial prejudice and slavery work hand in hand. The Article â€Å"The Paradox of Slavery† also helps us see how slavery and racism connect. The first side in The Mutual Causation of Racism and Slavery shows that slavery causes racism. When people first started migrating to America, most Africans were equal to the English settlers. â€Å"It is equally clear that a substantial number of Virginia’s Negroes were free or became free. And all of them, whether servant, slave, or free enjoyed most of the same rights andShow MoreRelatedSocio-Historical Impact of ‚Äà ºRacism Is the Result of Slavery‚Äà ¹803 Words   |  4 PagesSocio-Historical impact of â€Å"Racism Is The Result Of Slavery† Human nature wants to cast people who are like oneself as better than people not like oneself. That bias requires very little encouragement when coupled with the tendency towards selective memory. This impairs the normal empathy that generally prevents people from casually harming their fellows. A little push from greed and viola. It ought to be observed that the vast majority of people sold into slavery from sub-Saharan Africa wereRead MoreMelting Pot Or Salad Bowl987 Words   |  4 PagesAmerican values and what was the fact it was clear from the racism among white and African, so that were whites had has opportunities while Africans were had slaves, with the exception of Indian tribes who living in the United States before the settlement. However, there were some eggs in the north demanding the abolition of slavery, which means the start of the war with the south, which was considered to be the basis of the economy of slavery. In 1860 Abraham Lincoln became President of the United StatesRead MoreCharacter Analysis Of Scout And Jem s Relationship2149 Words   |  9 PagesJem looks to the history of Alabama: this suggests the he is seeing the problems as an older person. - There is a suggestion that the problem of racism can be traced back into the history of the south. Historical Setting - Maycomb was settled with the help of salves - Slavery was used extensively in the south before the civil war. Slaves were mostly black Africans stolen from there birthplace - A slave was a person who was owned as the property of another person. They had very few rights and wereRead MoreThe Book A Murder In Virginia By Suzanne Lebsock Takes1424 Words   |  6 Pagesdilemmas such as the ability for a black suspect to receive a fair trial and unbiased jury, differences between how male and female citizens are viewed, and how those with political motives should balance popular decisions versus what they think is the ethical decision. The questions that I want to answer the most are: Did the small town versus big city atmosphere of the different trials play a role in the outcomes? And, at the conclusion of this legal episode, did racism prevail over justice? TheRead MoreFeminist Theory : A Feminist Perspective1558 Words   |  7 Pagesexpectations of how a male or female body should look like. Secondly, feminist theory is also defined as fighting for women’s rights, especially for women of color. Unfortunately, â€Å"when women of color critiqued the racism within the society as a whole and called attention to the ways that racism had shaped and informed feminist theory and practice, many white women simply turned their backs on the vision of sisterhood, closing their minds and their hearts† (hooks 2000, 16). Hence, upper-class white womenRead MoreThelma Robinson s Original Writing1602 Words   |  7 PagesRobinson completed the 8th grade at her former grammar school in the summer of 1942. Although she wanted to continue school after the 8th grade, she was forced to work. As a young black girl living in the Jim Crow South, she was expected to follow her mother’s footsteps and become a maid. There were no other opportunities for black women during those days because segregation and discrimination prevented colored people from achieving anything greater than below average. As a wash maid for a family nine milesRead MoreI Know Why The Caged Bird Sings1386 Words   |  6 PagesThe memoir I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is an autobiography written by Maya Angelou as she grew up in the mid-20th century, where being a black girl and facing racial issues in society, had to overcome many problems that show the larger issue of the time period. I chose this book over the other nineteen memoirs because of the strong recommendations I received from my fellow class mates, and because of my interest in racial issues during the terrible times of segregation. Life was not fair, andRead MoreWe Read Race And Class2302 Words   |  10 PagesDave Chappelle talks about how many different types of people in society today benefit from racism and other social constructs whether or not they know it. While minority groups toil under racism, sexism and classism the majority groups benefit. While blacks were heavily oppressed from times of slavery all the way until the Jim Crow era whites benefited from the system of oppression. Back when women had no rights and sexism was rampant men were benefactors and while life gets harder and harder forRead MoreAll The World s A Stage Essay2014 Words   |  9 Pages Hamilton’s creator Lin Manuel Miranda says that his play is a story of the founding fathers, but told by how America is today. Meaning that, the cast is as diverse as America is. The creators wanted to showcase how America is no longer white and black. All races and genders fill the characters that in history were originally white. Having Hamilton, who was an orphan immigrant, portrayed by a person of color whose parents immigrated is a powerful statement. The struggle of power and rising up fromRead MoreThe Black Disadvantage in the United States1655 Words   |  7 PagesThe Black Disadvantage in the United States Racial profiling, higher risks of incarceration, poverty, unemployment, more student debt; these are just some of the issues that African Americans face in the United States today. The statistical facts show that African Americans Face an uphill battle compared to White Americans. A good portion of the financial inequality that exists is due to the trickle down of white financial ancestral inheritance which was able to amass overtime unlike the

Essay on Racial Inequality in America - 856 Words

In today’s world, the American still has barriers to overcome in the matter of racial equality. Whether it is being passed over for a promotion at the job or being underpaid, some people have to deal with unfair practice that would prevent someone of color or the opposite sex from having equal opportunity at the job. In 2004, Dukes vs. Wal-Mart Stores Incorporation was a civil rights class-action suite that ruled in favor of the women who worked and did not received promotions, pay and certain job assignments. This proves that some corporations ignore the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which protects workers from discrimination based on sex, race, religion or national origin. In the past, it is true that African American have suffered injustice,†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Some employers used tests for hiring or promotion that screened out African American at a higher rate than white applicants, making it nearly impossible for them to be hired in any substantial numbers† (Vertreace, 2010). In many cases white supervisors or managers would make sure they interview just enough minorities so they want to appear not to be bias toward other races. They even pretend to follow company’s rules, but instead they make their own rules and dare someone to cross them. Nevertheless, there are not enough opportunities for black people to advance. If the only available jobs are low-income jobs, then the chance of living in poverty will continue for minorities. In another sense, there are other minorities who have suffered a great deal due inequality in America. That would be the Hispanic culture, who will do most work other culture refuse to do for less pay. Some Mexican who comes from parts of Mexico that is so poor that they are willingly and ready to work for almost nothing. Many of them work here in the United States illegally, picking tomatoes or other crops. Although they earn less than the minimum wage, it is better than earning nothing back home. While it is true that Mexican immigrants worked very hard, it does not necessary mean that they should be subject to work for a very low wage. Above all, they work long hours in the hot beaming sun, until their skin turns three shades darker than it was before theyShow MoreRelatedCauses Of Racial Inequality In America1777 Words   |  8 Pages Racial inequality is one of the acute issues faced by contemporary American society. In many academic sources, this social issue is discussed by so ciologists as a serious national problem that requires the proper and prompt solutions (Hwang, J. Sampson, 2014; McCarthy, 1991; Williams Sternthal, 2010). It has been found that â€Å"race relations in America have undergone fundamental changes in recent years, so much so that now the life chances of individual blacks have more to do with their economicRead MoreRace And Health Inequality In America. . Racial Discrimination1580 Words   |  7 PagesRace and Health Inequality in America Racial discrimination by doctors According to Golash-Boza (2016), the systemic racism or the accumulated disadvantages for non-whites are also reflected in in the areas of health and environment. Golash-Boza (2016) argues that racial inequalities diminish not only he opportunities for non-whites but also â€Å"our time on earth†. This can have an effect on the health and life expectancy. It is interesting to look at why blacks have a lower life expectancy thanRead MoreThe Racial Inequality of Blacks and Asians in America Essay1440 Words   |  6 PagesAsian-Black relations in â€Å"Native Speaker† America has been thought of as a place represented by fairness, mixed culture, power and the dream of having a better life for everyone, whether a person is white, black, brown, and yellow. However, the truth is that racial groups have been segregated by the white-centric media or government of the American society, and that has widened the psychological and geographical distances between the two groups, Asian and black, and has encouraged ignorance andRead MoreThe Effects Of Islamophobia On The Past And Present1326 Words   |  6 Pagessocial inequality in the past or present lead to chaotic consequences. Individual freedom of begin equal among started to vanish. Islamophobia began when the 9/11 terrorist attack occurred. After the 9/11 attack the development of the fear of Islamophobia began. In September 11, 2001, there was a terrorist attack and that took down the Twin Towers (Holman Silver, 2011, p. 483). Thus, this is a point of significant because this was the beginning of the major crisis of Islamophobia in America. PeopleRead MoreAddress Racial Inequalities : Past And Present1247 Words   |  5 Pagesaddress Racial Inequalities: Past and Present Introduction It is no secret that racial inequalities exist today and have for many years now. They have existed at many levels including institutional, collective, and personal. In this paper, I plan to show how previous policies created these inequalities, and explain how we can address these issues at all levels. I will also show which policies have had an impact on minorities in contributing to greater equality. For racial inequalityRead MoreAnalysis Of The Article The Model Minority Losing Patience 1278 Words   |  6 Pages It is the 21st century and there is still racial prejudice in America. Many may not realize this, but there is a growing problem between Asian-Americans and the American society. A growing issue is that minorities, especially Asian-Americans are being judged based on their race rather than the accolades and achievements they have accomplished. In the article â€Å"The model minority is losing patience,† the article discusses about a high school senior by the name of Michael Wang, who was denied six outRead MoreRacial Inequality : Not Much Has Changed1403 Words   |  6 PagesRacial Inequality in America; Not Much Has Changed There are approximately 7 billion people in this world. Each person has a unique combination of traits such as skin tone, face shape, body type, eye color, hair color, and other characteristics. These traits vary due to genetics, environmental factors, and much more. An individual s race is defined by their physical characteristics and how they differ among others. 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Electronic Gadgets Free Essays

string(227) " state from each of the following regions to represent the United States: Midwest \(Kansas\), New England \(Massachusetts\), Southwest \(Texas\), Pacific Coast \(California\), Southeast \(Florida\), Mid -Atlantic \(New York\)\." Issues in Information Systems Volume 13, Issue 1, pp. 225-231, 2012 IS THE GROWING USE OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES BENEFICIAL TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE? RESULTS FROM ARCHIVAL DATA AND A SURVEY Taylor S. Drain, Washburn University, taylor. We will write a custom essay sample on Electronic Gadgets or any similar topic only for you Order Now drain@washburn. edu Lakeisha E. Grier, Washburn University, lakeisha. grier@washburn. edu Wenying Sun, Washburn University, nan. sun@washburn. edu ABSTRACT In this study, we investigate the relationship between academic performance and the use of computer technology. We test our hypothesis which proposes that the growing use of electronic deveices is academically beneficial to high school students’ standardized test scores and GPA. Our method of data collection includes both a survey of high school students in the Midwest area and an analysis of national SAT scores in the years before computing and in years with computing. Analysis of SAT archival data shows a negative correlation between scores pre -computing and scores post-computing (with computing influences), meaning that as scores before computing were decreasing, scores with prevalent computer technology are increasing. Our survey data also displayed a positive correlation between time spent on electronic devices for school purpose and GPA. Keywords: Computer Technology, Academic Performance , SAT, GPA, Electronic Devices INTRODUCTION The availability and use of electronic devices continues to grow. Over 420 million smart phones were sold worldwide in 2011 [6]. Almost 400 million computers were sold during 2010 , and that figure is expected to increase to over 1 billion units which will incl ude computers and smart phones by 2014 [3]. With the development of Wi-Fi hotspots, it is now easier for people to stay connected with their portable devices. Since electronic devices continue to be adapted to be friendlier to the end users, we want to research how the increased use of computer based technologies both in the classroom and at home impacts the academic performance of students. The following research question is posed: â€Å"Is the increased use of computer based technology improving the academic performance of students? † In order for us to investigate this question, we have analyzed two sources of data. The first being SAT test scores over the last 30 years. The second source is from data we collected from a survey that we presented to high school students. This study is important because it shows that the increasing use of electronic technologies for schoolwork is improving students’ academic performance. Computer technology is everywhere in the society, and most of the high school students in the U. S. own or have access to computer technology on a daily basis. We hope to show appropriate use of these technologies will increase learning. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. We provide a literature review on related research. We then discuss the data analysis and present the results. The last section provides discussions of the results along with the implications of this study. LITERATURE REVIEW Our literature review suggests there are contradictory conclusions from various studies regarding whether computer use improves academic performance. Some studies state that computer use improves academic performance. Others propose that academic performance has nothing to do with computer use. A few studies suggest that computer use is a distraction to school studies and negatively impacts academic performance. 225 Issues in Information Systems Volume 13, Issue 1, pp. 225-231, 2012 One study claims that there exists evidence that Internet-time is harming children’s academic performance. This study was done by economists at the University of Munich named Thomas Fuchs and Ludger Woessmann who surveyed students in 31 countries. They created a very thorough, detailed survey in order to eliminate other possible causes of the downward trend of academic performance . They state in their results that the â€Å"sheer ubiquity of information technology is getting in the way of learning† [7]. Another study hoped to find correlation in Internet/ Gaming Use and its numerous effects on adolescents. They analyzed not just academic performance, but social skills, relationship s, sense of reality and violent behavior. Their conclusion regarding internet use and its impact on academic performance was â€Å" although playing specific computer games has immediate positive effects on specific spatial, iconic, and attentional skills used b y the game, we need more research to see if long term computer and Internet use (both game and nongame) can lead to long term improvements in cognitive skills and academic achievement† [8]. Another study investigated the relationship between academic achievement and computer use. The focus was students in the 10th grade. They did a survey of three high schools in Ohio. This study had the students keep a log of how much time they used the computer for several different categories of activities. The study did not focus on any testing scores. Everything was measured against the students GPA. It did not find computer use at home and GPA to have a significant relationship [5]. A final study analyzed the impact of owning a computer at home and not necessar ily using it to assist in the classroom. They concluded that â€Å"home computers are associated with a 6-8 percentage point higher probability of graduating from high school† [2]. They also discussed that their statistics supported the idea that owning a perso nal computer or having access to one at home had a positive correlation with grades and a negative correlation with suspension. While many studies, experiments and discussions continue to dwell around this topic, we will specifically analyze the impact of computer technology on high school students’ standardized test scores and determine if we can further support the idea that computing benefits learning. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY We gathered data from two sources. One was external and compiled from publicly reported standardized test scores. The second was collected from a survey of high school students we conducted. Our first data source is compiled ACT and SAT scores from their respective institutions statistical data archives. [1,4] We have access to ACT scores from 1994 to 2011 and SAT scores from 19 78 – 2011. SAT scores were not separated by state until 1998. We choose one state from each of the following regions to represent the United States: Midwest (Kansas), New England (Massachusetts), Southwest (Texas), Pacific Coast (California), Southeast (Florida), Mid -Atlantic (New York). You read "Electronic Gadgets" in category "Papers" We chose Kansas to represent the Midwest, as we knew our survey data would be gathered from that state. As for selecting representative states for the other regions, we took into consideration that we wanted the most general, unbiased data. Therefore we selected states with the largest populations in hopes that those who took the standardized tests would be a more thorough and accurate sample of that state. Prior to 2005, the SAT did not contain a writing section to the standardized assessment. In order to make our data comparable, we only compared the verbal and math scores for all the years we analyzed . We took the mean of the SAT, per year, per region (state), to the mean of the GPA that is recorded that year. For the ACT, we compared the scores for each year, for each region, to the national mean of that year and observed the trends present. We determined ACT data to be unusable for our study due to the fact that the year s and breakdown of the scores was very limited. Our second source of data is the responses from a survey that were distributed to high school students in the Midwest area. We took several steps to conduct this survey. First, we designed the survey instrument. This included several rounds of determining more refined questions and formatting for the best presentation. Our survey questions were divided into two categories. One category was general demographic information including: gender, age, and 226 Issues in Information Systems Volume 13, Issue 1, pp. 225-231, 2012 grade level. After looking at common survey questions, we were able to word these basic demographic questions to be clear and concise. The other category included data that would directly relate to our theory: GPA, SAT score, ACT score, time spent on computer for entertainment, school, and other purposes. In order to eliminate potential human error problems or difficulty reading participants’ answers, we provided answers with checkboxes for every question except for the computer usage question. Our survey questions were divided into two categories. One category was general demographic information including: gender, age, and grade level. After looking at common survey questions, we were able to word these basic demographic questions to be clear and concise. The other category included data that would directly relate to our theory: GPA, SAT score, ACT score, time spent on computer for entertainment, school, and other purposes. In order to eliminate potential human error problems or difficulty reading participants’ answ ers, we provided answers with checkboxes for every question except for the computer usage question. Next, in order to survey students, we had to have our research project approved by our university’s Institutional Review Board. This process included an extensive application requiring a description of potential participants, reason for research, research plan, survey instrument, and how the participation of students would be used. Shortly after submission, our application was approved, allowing us to rea ch out to local schools and begin our surveying. Third, we conducted a trial run of the survey by asking seven high schools students to take the survey and report any suggestions for improvement or problems comprehending the questions. Fourth, we distributed copies of the surveys to high schools in the area. We contacted principals to get their permission and delivered them to the schools that were willing to participate. The following pieces of data were collected: hours spent using an electronic devices on school days and non schools (for educational, entertainment or other purposes), SAT score, ACT score, GPA, age, gender and opinion of the effect of technology on their personal learning on a 7 point Likert Scale. Before analyzing the survey data, we prepared the data for analysis. We converted non-numerical data into a comparable numerical format. We declared 1 as representing Male and 2 representing Female. We used 1 – 7 to represent strongly disagree to strongly agree on the Likert scale. We assigne d numbers to the ranges of ACT and SAT scores starting at 1 for the lowest range and ending at 13 for ACT and 14 for SAT. For GPA, we assigned numbers for the ranges, 1 for less than 2. 0, 2 for 2. 0 – 2. 49, 3 for 2. 5 – 2. 99, 4 for 3. 0 – 3. 49 and 5 for 3. 5 – 4. 0. We then used SPSS to determine correlation between both GPA and standardized test scores and computer usage and GPA. We analyzed our data using a T -test For Equality of the Means to compare each region to the significant region of the Midwest. We consider this region to be significant because it is where our survey data is collected. The analysis of our survey data and SAT and ACT collected data is discussed in the next section. 227 Issues in Information Systems Volume 13, Issue 1, pp. 225-231, 2012 Figure 1. Survey RESULTS Archival Data We used the years 1972 – 1987 to represent prior to popular computer use and the years 199 5 – 2010 to represent the emergence of computer technology and increased use of it for educational or other purposes. Using SPSS, we found significant negative relationships between these time periods with both Spearman’s and Pearson’s correlation tests. The Spearman test between these two 15 year periods of scores was -. 59 and (p-value = 0. 01). The Pearson test between these time periods was -. 764 (p-value = 0. 01). We graphed the Combined Verbal and Math scores for both the pre-computing time period (1972 – 1987) and for the with-computing time period (1995 – 2010). Figure 1 below shows the National SAT score trend for a fifteen year period bef ore computing was prevalent among high school st udents (1972 – 1987). The data illustrates a negative trend for this time period. Figure 2 below shows the National SAT score trend for the fifteen year period 228 Issues in Information Systems Volume 13, Issue 1, pp. 25-231, 2012 with computing among high school students (1995 – 2010). The data for this time period illustrates an initial upward trend for the first ten years. Figure 2. National SAT scores from 1972-1987 Figure 3. National SAT scores from 1995-2010 Survey Data 102 complete surveys were returned and the demographics of the respondents are shown in Table 1. The sample population had slightly more males (52%) than females (48%). The sample population had various ages including 12 years (1%), 14 years (14. 7%), 15 years (26. 5%), 16 years (20. 6%), 18 years (21. 6%), and 19 years (1%). We had students from four grades; 9th had 33 (32. 45), 10th had 29 (28. 4%), 11th had 10 (9. 8%), and 12th had 31 (30. 4%). Students spent an average of 5. 36 hours using computer technology on school days and 8. 45 hours on non -school days. 229 Issues in Information Systems Volume 13, Issue 1, pp. 225-231, 2012 Gender Female Male Grade 9th 10th 11th 12th Table 1. Demographics of the Respondents Age Avg Comp Use 49 (48%) 12 1 (1%) School Days 53 (52%) 14 15 (14. 7%) Std. Deviation 15 27 (26. 5%) 33 (32. 4%) 16 21 (20. 6%) Non-School Days 29 (28. 4%) 17 15 (14. 7%) Std. Deviation 10 (9. 8%) 8 22 (21. 6%) 31 (30. 4%) 19 1 (1%) 5. 36 hrs 3. 91 8. 45 hrs 4. 81 We analyzed our data with SPSS and ran tests against variables in order to note correlation among factors that were recorded in our survey data. Several significant relationships were evident in our survey data. All of the results listed below use Spearman’s correlation test between two variables. We had a . 223 positive co rrelation between reported GPA and Computer Use for School on School Days (p-value = . 05). There was a . 213 positive correlation between GPA and Computer Use for Other on School Days (p-value = . 05). No significant correlation was found between computer use for school on Non-School Days and GPA, due to the fact that the majority of our respondents reported that they did not spend any hours on schoolwork on Non-School Days. We found a . 663 positive correlation between GPA and ACT scores (p-value = . 01). We also found a positive correlation of . 224 between GPA and sex. Finally, we found a . 241 positive correlation between students that felt that computer use was beneficial to their personal academic performance and those that utilized technology for school purposes had a p-value of . 5. Table 2 summarizes these correlations and highlights the significant correlations. School Days Entertainment School Other Total Hours Non-School Days Entertainment School Other Total Hours GPA GPA -. 125 .223 .213 .107 -. 157 .099 .085 .003 1 Table 2. Correlations p-value ACT Score p-value .237 .084 .657 .034 -. 070 .714 .044 -. 055 .774 .304 .058 .761 .137 .352 .428 .977 -. 033 .027 -. 190 -. 1 29 .663 .863 .889 .314 .497 .000 Opinion .030 .241 -. 080 .068 p-value .778 .020 .447 .509 -. 055 .061 -. 050 .015 .010 .598 .561 .638 .887 .920 CONCLUSION In this study, we aimed to answer the following research question, â€Å"Is the increased use of computer based technology improving the academic performance of students? † We analyzed standardized test scores, the SAT, in the years before prevalent computing (1972 – 1987) and in the years with prevalent and ever-increasing computer use (1995 – 2010). We also surveyed local high school students asking for computer usage in hours, standardized test scores and GPA. The analysis of SAT scores reveals an evident negative correlation. This significant correlation illustrates that in the first time period, 1972 – 1987, SAT scores were decreasing, but that in the years with computing, 1995 – 2010, scores were increasing. It can be inferred, without regarding other external factors, that computing has benefite d student performance in standardized testing, specifically the SAT. A thorough comparative analysis of our survey data indicates several significant correlations. First, the positive relationship between the hours of computer use for school purposes and GPA demonstrates the idea that use of electronic devices for school urposes benefits academic performance. Second, those with high GPA’s also had high standardized test scores, such that it can be inferred that appropriate use of electronic devices also benefits students 230 Issues in Information Systems Volume 13, Issue 1, pp. 225-231, 2012 in their standardized testing. Finally, students who had the opinion that use of electronic devices improved their personal academic performance utilized those tools, which are shown by the significant correlation between students who held this opinion and used electronic devices for schoolwork. These significant correlat ions imply, in our sample, that use of computing, or electronic devices for school work and the like, benefit students in both their GPAs and their standardized test scores. Our survey results and standardized test score analysis show an improvement in academic performance with increased computer usage. Specifically, our results show that students who spent more time using their electronic devices for school purposes did better in school than those who claimed they used their devices for other purposes. This result in our survey sample group illustrates our theory that â€Å"intelligent use† of electronic devices improves academic performance of students. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH This study has a few limitations. First, in our analysis of standardized test scores, we decided against including the Writing section of the ACT as it made comparing scores between previous to 2005 and after 2005 inaccurate. This limited our ability to determine the improvement of devolvement of writing skills based upon increase in computer usage. Also, in our analysis of standardized test scores we did not include ACT scores in our results section because there was a very narrow amount of data available before prevalent computer use. Finally, we only surveyed students in local area high schools. In order to make a more accurate and generalized conclusion, we would need to have a further reaching and larger sur vey size. Further research must be conducted in order to determine if our results could be duplicated in another sample group and to rule out external factors. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. . 231 ACT Incorporated. (2012). ACT national and state scores. Retrieved from http://www. act. org/newsroom/data/ Beltran, D. (2008). Home computers and educational outcomes: Evidence from the NLSY97 and CPS. Retrieved from Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System Web site: http://www. federalreserve. gov/pubs/ifdp/2008/958/ifdp958. pdf Clark, N. (2011). Annual computer sale to pass 1 billion by 2014. Retrieved from The Ind ependent Web site: http://www. independent. co. uk/news/business/news/annual -computer-sales-to-pass-1-billion-by-20142187923. tml Collegeboard. org Incorporated. (2012). Retrieved from http://professionals. collegeboard. com/data-reportsresearch/sat/archived Delgado-Hachey, Maria, et al. (2005). Adolescent computer use and academic achievement. Adolescence, 40(158), 307-318. Epstein, Z. (2011). IMS: Annual smartphone sales to reach 1 billion units by 2016; Apple, Samsung winners so far. Retrieved from BGR Web site: http://www. bgr. com/2011/07/27/ims-annual-smartphone-sales-to-reach-1billion-units-by-2016-apple-samsung-winners-so-far/ Ferguson, S. (2005). How computers How to cite Electronic Gadgets, Papers

The Computer Underground. Essay Example For Students

The Computer Underground. Essay The beginning of the electronic communication revolution that started with the public use of telephones to the emergence of home computers has been accompanied by corresponding social problems involving the activities of so-called computer hackers, or better referred to as the computer underground (CU). The CU is composed of computer aficionados who stay on the fringes of legality. The CU is composed of relatively intelligent people, in contrast to the medias description of the ultraintelligent and sophisticated teenage hacker. The majority have in common the belief that information should be free and that they have a right to know. They often have some amount of dislike for the government and the industries who try to control and commercialize information of any sort. This paper attempts to expose what the CU truly is and dispel some of the myths propagated by the media and other organizations. This paper also tries to show the processes and reasons behind the criminalization of the CU and how the CU is viewed by different organizations, as well as some of the processes by which it came into being. What the CU is has been addressed by the media, criminologists, secuity firms, and the CU themselves, they all have a different understanding or levels of comprehention, this paper attempts to show the differences between the views as well as attempt to correct misunderstandings that may have been propagated by misinformed sources. The differences between the parties of the CU such as, hackers, crackers, phreaks, pirates, and virus writers have rarely been recognized and some deny that there are differences thus this paper attempts to give a somewhat clearer view and define exactly what each party is and does as well as how they relate to one another. We will write a custom essay on The Computer Underground. specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Every individual in the CU has a different level of sophistication when it comes to computers, from the height of the advanced virus writer and network hacker to the pirate who can be at the same level as a novice computer user. The prevalence of the problem has been dramatized by the media and enforcement agents, and evidenced by the rise of specialized private security firms to confront the hackers. The average persons knowledge about the CU has been derived mostly from the media. The media gets their information from former CU individuals who have been caught, from law enforcement agents, and from computer security specialists. The computer underground, as it is called by those who participate in it, is composed of people adhering to one or several roles: hacker, phreaker, pirate, cracker, and computer virus developer. Terms such as these have different meanings for those who have written about the computer underground, such as the media, and those who participate in it. The medias concept of the Computer Underground is the main cause of the criminalization of the activity and has largely occurred as the result of media dramatization of the problem (Hollinger and Lanza-Kaduce, 1988). In fact, it was a collection of newspaper and film clips that was presented to the United States Congress during legislative debates as evidence of the computer hacking problem (Hollinger and Lanza-Kaduce, 1988, p.107). Unfortunately, the media assessment of the computer underground displays a naive understanding of CU activity. The media generally makes little distinction between different types of CU activity. Most any computer- related crime activity can be attributed to hackers. Everything from embezzlement to computer viruses have, at one time or another, been attributed to them. Additionally, hackers are often described as being sociopathic or malicious, creating a media image of the computer underground that may exaggerate their ability for doing damage. The label ing of the CU and especially hackers as being evil is well illustrated by these media examples. The first is from Eddie Schwartz, a WGN-Radio talk show host. Here Schwartz is addressing Anna, a self-identified hacker that has phoned into the show: You know what Anna, you know what disturbs me? You dont sound like a stupid person but you represent a . . . a . . . a . . . lack of morality thatdisturbs me greatly. You really do. I think you represent a certain way of thinking that is morally bankrupt. And Im not trying to offend you, but I . . .Im offended by you! (WGN Radio, 1988)Another example is from NBC-TVs Hour Magazine featured a segment on computer crime. In this example, Jay Bloombecker, director of the National Center for Computer Crime Data, discusses the hacker problem with the host of the show, Gary Collins. Collins: . . . are they (hackers) malicious in intent, or are they simply out to prove, ah, a certain machismo amongst their peers? Bloombecker: I think so. Ive talked about modem macho as one explanation for whats being done. And a lot of the cases seem to involve proving that he . . . can do something really spiffy with computers. But, some of the cases are so evil, like causing so many computers to break, they cant look at that as just trying to prove that youre better than other people. GC: So thats just some of it, some kind of bet against the computer industry, or against the company. JB: No, I think its more than just rottenness. And like someone who uses graffiti doesnt care too much whose building it is, they just want to be destructive. GC: Youre talking about a sociopath in control of a computer! JB: Ah, lots of computers, because theres thousands, or tens of thousands of hackers. (NBC-TV, 1988)The medias obsession with the computer underground, that is generally labeled a s hacking, focuses almost entirely upon the morality of their actions. Since media stories are taken from the accounts of the police, security personnel, and members of the computer underground who have been caught, each of whom have different perspectives and 20 definitions of their own, the medias definition, if not inherently biased, is at best inconsistent. Criminologists, are less judgmental than the media, but no more precise. Labels of electronic trespassers(Parker, 1983), and electronic vandals (Bequai, 1987) have both been applied to the CUs hacking element specifically. Both terms, while acknowledging that hacking is deviant, shy away from labeling it as criminal or sociopathic behavior. Yet despite this seemingly non-judgmental approach to the computer underground, both Parker and Bequai have testified before Congress, on behalf of the computer security industry, on the danger of computer hackers. Unfortunately, their expert testimony was largely based on information culled from newspaper stories, the objectiveness of which has been seriously questioned (Hollinger and Lanza-Kaduce 1988 p.105). Computer security specialists, on the other hand, are often quick to identify the CU as criminals. Similarly, some reject the notion that there are different roles and motivations among the computer underground participants and thereby refu se to define just what it is that a hacker or phreaker does. John Maxfield, a hacker expert, suggests that differentiating between hackers and phone phreaks is a moot point, preferring instead that they all just be called criminals. The reluctance or inability to differentiate between roles and activities in the computer underground, as exhibited in the media and computer security firms, creates an ambiguous definition of hacker that possesses two extremes: the modern-day bank robber at one end, the trespassing teenager at the other. Thus, most any criminal or mischievous act that involves computers can be attributed to hackers, regardless of the nature of the crime. Participants in the computer underground also object the overuse and misuse of the word hacking. Their objection centers around the indiscriminate use of the word to refer to computer related crime in general and not, specifically, the activities of the computer underground: Whenever the slightest little thing happens involving computer security, or the breach thereof, the media goes fucking batshit and points all their fingers at us nasty hackers. Theyre so damned ignorant its sick (EN, message log, 1988). . . . whenever the media happens upon anything that involves malicious computer use its the HACKERS. The word is a catch phrase it makes mom drop the dishes and watch the TV. They use the word because not only they dont really know the meaning but they have lack of a word to describe the perpetrator. Thats why hacker has such a bad name, its always associated with evil things and such (PA, message log, 1988). I never seen a phreaker called a phreaker when caught and hes printed in the newspaper. You always see them Hacker caught in telephone fraud. Hacker defrauds old man with phone calling card. What someone should do is tell the fucken media to get it straight (TP2, message log, 1988). .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 , .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 .postImageUrl , .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 , .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8:hover , .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8:visited , .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8:active { border:0!important; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8:active , .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8 .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u6cc343bcc0b3791714bf23715cf883b8:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Geography Senegal: An In Depth Study Senegal Is A Republic Located In EssayThe difference between the different elements of the computer underground has been generally obscured by the media. Terms such as Cracker, Phreaker, Pirate, or Virus writer have been generally replaced with the all encompassing word HACKER. Each element is associated with the computer underground and some are bigger players than others but none of them can qualify individually as the total sum of all the elements. There are major differences between the elements of the CU that is rarely understood by someone on the outside. The use of the word hacker, which is now generally accepted to be part of the CU, has gone through drastic changes in definition. Hacker was first applied to computer related activities when it was used by programmers in the late 1950s. At that time it referred to the pioneering researchers, such as those at M.I.T., who were constantly adjusting and experimenting with the new technology (Levy, 1984. p.7). A hacker in this context refers to an unorthodox, yet talented, professional programmer. This use of the term still exits today, though it is largely limited to professional computing circles. The computer professionals maintain that using hackers (or hacking) to refer to any illegal or illicit activity is a corruption of the true meaning of the word. Bob Bickford, aprofessional programmer who has organized several programmer conferences, explains:At a conference called Hackers 4.0 we had 200 of the most brilliant computer professionals in the world together for one weekend; this cr owd included several PhDs, several presidents of companies (including large companies, such as Pixar), and various artists, writers, engineers, and programmers. These people all consider themselves Hackers: all derive great joy from their work, from finding ways around problems and limits, from creating rather than destroying. It would be a great disservice to these people, and the thousands of professionals like them, to let some pathetic teenaged criminals destroy the one word which captures their style of interaction with the universe. (Bickford, 1988). The more widely accepted definition of hacker refers to one who obtains unauthorized, if not illegal, access to computer systems and networks. This definition was popularized by the movie War Games and, generally speaking, is the one used by the media. It is also the definition favored by the computer underground. Both the members of the computer underground and professional computer programmers claim ownership of hacker, and each defend the proper use of term. However, since computer break-ins are likely to receive more media attention than clever feats of programming, the CU definition is likely to dominate simply by being used more often. A computer hacker could be defined as an individual, associated with the computer underground, who specializes in obtaining unauthorize access to computer systems. Hacking refers to gaining access and exploring computer systems and networks. Hacking encompasses both the act and the methods used to obtain valid user accounts on computer systems. Hacking also refers to the activity that occurs once access to another computer has been obtained. Since the system is being used without authorization, the hacker does not, generally speaking, have access to the usual operating manuals and other resources that are available to legitimate users. Therefore, the hacker must experiment with commands and explore various files in order to understand and effectively use the system. The goal here is to explore and experiment with the system that has been entered. By examining files and, perhaps, by a little clever programming, the hacker may be able to obtain protected information or more powerful ac cess privileges. Once a hacker has managed to gain access to a computer system he will generally try make sure that his activities are hidden so that he can keep access on the system. This is the difference between hacker and cracker. Unlike the hacker a cracker is only really interested in cracking the machine/system and once the feat is accomplished he is generally disinterested and leaves, he could be called the tourist of the hacking element. (Bill Landreth, Outside the Inner Circle)Another role in the computer underground is that of the phone phreak. Phone phreaking, usually called just phreaking, was widely publicized when the exploits of John Capn Crunch Draper, the father of phreaking, were publicized in a 1971 Esquire magazine article. The term phreaking encompasses several different means of getting around the billing mechanisms of telephone companies. By using these methods, long distance phone calls can be placed without cost. In ma y cases themethods also prevent, or at least inhibit, the possibility of calls being traced to their source thereby helping the phreaker to avoid being caught. Early phreaking methods involved electro-mechanical devices that generated key tones, or altered line voltages in certain ways as to trick the mechanical switches of the phone company into connecting calls without charging. This method of phreaking is generally called (color) boxing, where the type of box is referred to by a color such as blue boxing. However the advent of computerized telephone-switching systems largely made these devices obsolete. In order to continue their practice the phreaks have had to learn hacking skills. Phreaking and hacking have just recently merged, because now, the telephone companies are using computers to operate their network. So, in order to learn more about these computers in relation to the network, phreaks have learned hacking skills, and can now program, and get around inside the machines (AF, message log, 1988). For most members of the computer underground, phreaking is simply a tool that allows them to call long distance without amassing enormous phone bills. Because the two activities are so closely related, with phreakers learning hacking skills and hackers breaking into telco computers, reference is usually made to phreak/hacking or p/hackers. Those who have a deeper and more technically oriented interest in the telco (telephone company) are known as phreakers. They, like the hackers discussed earlier, desire to master and explore a system that few outsiders really understand: The phone system is the most interesting, fascinating thing that I know of. There is so much to know. Even phreaks have their own areas of knowledge. There is so much to know that one phreak could know something fairly important and the next phreak not. The next phreak might know ten things that the first phreak doesnt though. It all depends upon where and how they get their info. I myself would like to work for th e telco, doing something interesting, like programming a switch. Something that isnt slave labor bullshit. Something that you enjoy, but have to take risks in order to participate unless you are lucky enough to work for the telco. To have accessto telco things, manuals, etc would be great (DP, message log, 1988). Phreaking involves having the dedication to commit yourself to learning as much about the phone system/network as possible. Since most of this information is not made public, phreaks have to resort to legally questionable means to obtain the knowledge they want (TP2, message log, 1988). Most members of the underground do not approach the telephone system with such passion. Many hackers are interested in the phone system solely to the extent that they can exploit its weaknesses and pursue other goals. In this case, phreaking becomes a means and not a pursuit unto itself. Another individual, one who identifies himself as a hacker, explains: I know very little about phones . . . I just hack. See, I cant exactly call these numbers direct. A lot of people are in the same boat. In my case, phreaking is a tool, an often used one, but nonetheless a tool (TU, message log, 1988). In the world of the computer underground, the ability to phreak a call is taken for granted. The phone companies allowance the use of the credit cards for billing has opened the door to wide-scale phreaking. With credit cards, no special knowledge or equipment is required to phreak a call, only valid credit card numbers, known as codez, are needed to call any location in the world. This method of phreaking is generally called carding, it is generally looked on as the lowest form of phreaking as almost no technical skill is necessary.Another role in the computer underground is that of the software pirate. Software piracy refers to the unauthorized copying anddistribution of copyrighted software. This activity centers around computer bulletin board systems, and parts of the internet that specialize in warez. Pirates and phreak/hackers/crackers do not necessarily support the activities of each other, and there is distrust and misunderstanding between the two groups. At least part of thi s distrust lies in the phreak/hacker perception that piracy is an unskilled activity. A possible exception to this are those pirates that have the programming skills needed to remove copy protection from software. By removing the program code that inhibits duplicate copies from being made these individuals, which also go by the name crackers, contribute greatly to the easy distribution of warez. While p/hackers generally dont disapprove of piracy as an activity, especially cracking pirates, they nevertheless tend to avoid pirate bulletin boards and internet sites partly because there is little pertinent phreak/hack information contained on them, and partly because of the belief that pirates indiscriminately abuse the telephone network in pursuit of the latest computer game. One hacker illustrates this belief by theorizing that pirates are responsible for a large part of credit card fraud. The media claims that it is solely hackers who are responsible or losses pertaining to large te lecommunication companies and long distance services. This is not the case. We are (hackers) but a small portion of these losses. The rest are caused by pirates and thieves who sell these codes to people on the street (AF, message log, 1988). Other hackers complain that uploading large programs frequently takes several hours to complete, and it is pirate calls, not the ones placed by tele-communications enthusiasts (a popular euphemism for phreakers and hackers) that cost the telephone industry large sums of money. However, not all pirates phreak their calls. Phreaking is considered very tacky among elite pirates, and system operators (Sysops) of pirate bulletin boards discourage phreaked calls because it draws attention to the system when the call is discovered by the telephone company. .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 , .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 .postImageUrl , .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 , .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515:hover , .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515:visited , .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515:active { border:0!important; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515:active , .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515 .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u15acb572300054cc6d0bd9cfa06e3515:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: A Critical Approach To Barn Burning (by William EssayFor the average computer user the most feared of the computer underground is that of the computer virus creator. Among the CU computer viruses are generally referred to as viri. Computer viruses are in themselves a very specific type of program but to the novice or low sophistication computer user, which the majority are, they are any program that can take over, damage or otherwise infiltrate, a computer. Program that qualify as trojan horses, logic bombs, or worms are often just called viruses. A virus is a self-replicating program that is capable of carrying a destructive or otherwise annoying payload while a trojan ho rse is a program that allows easy access to an already-penetrated system. It can also be used to facilitate a penetration by being tagged to a legitimate program so that when the host computer runs the program the trojan put itself in a position to allow the designer easy access. Logic or time bombs are similar to the trojans except that they wait for a specific circumstances or time to detonate a harmful payload. Logic bombs are often incorporated into a virus, if it is of the destructive variety, as their destructive payload. The worm is the most similar to a virus in that it also replicates, but it is generally designed to infect idle workstations or terminals on a network. Worms tend to exist in memory and are non- permanent, one must simply reboot to remove them, while the virus resides on disk where they are permanent until eradicated. There are two main types of virus writers, people whos main purpose is to create havoc for the computer user doing everything possible to sprea d their viruses. Then there are the people who arent interested in spreading their viruses but rather creating them as a mental exercise that involves figuring out better ways to evade detection or further empower their programming skills. The latter will often be composed of software engineers and highly skilled programmers while the primary tends to be a younger age group who are relatively unskilled in comparison. An example of this is a teenage viri writer called Little Loc who wanted to be the most dangerous virus writer in American, and attempted to prove it by writing a virus that became wide spread and know as the Satan Bug. On the other hand there are writers like Screaming Radish, who is Windows-application developer from Australia, his purpose in virus development is not destructive but rather to gain a better understanding of how anti-virus software works. He likes to reverse-engineer anti-virus software taking them apart to study what signatures it scanned for and what the software excludes from its scrutiny. Viruses made with that level of sophistication are becoming a type of digital currency in the computer underground where one can use them to trade for other information. (Jan Smith, 1994) Mark A. Lugwig, the writer of virus tutorials, had this to say: It is inevitable that these books will offend some people. In fact, I hope they do. They need to. I am convinced that computer viruses are not evil and that programmers have the right to create them, posses them and experiment with them. That kind of a stand is going to offend a lot of people, no matter how it is presented. Even a purely technical treatment of viruses which simply discussed how to write them and provided some examples would be offensive. The mere thought of a million well armed hackers out there is enough to drive some bureaucrats mad. These books go beyond a technical treatment, though, to defend the idea that viruses can be useful, interesting, and just plain fun. That is bound to prove even more offensive. Still, the truth is the truth, and it needs to be spoken, even if it is offensive. Morals and ethics cannot be determined by a majority vote, any more than they can be determined by the barrel of a gun or loud mouth. Might does not make right. The mass media has tended to sensationalize hacking, whilst soundly condemning it. But there other points of view: for example, in many instances the breaching of systems can provide more effective security in the future, so that other (presumably less well-intentioned) elements of the CU are prevented from causing real harm. A good llustration of this was the penetration of British Telecoms electronic mail system in1984, by Steven Gold and Robert Schifreen, which resulted in a rude message being left in none other than the Duke of Edinburghs account! This incident attracted enormous publicity and led directly to improved security arrangements for the whole of the Prestel system. Gold and Schifeen were therefore extremely indignant at being treated as criminals and this illustrates the discrepancy between what the law considers to be criminal behavior and how the CU often perceive themselves. (The Australian, 1988) We might therefore ask ourselves whether, for the sake of balance, a truly democratic society should possess a core of technically gifted but recalcitrant people. Given that more and more information about individuals is now being stored on computers, often without our knowledge or consent, is it not reassuring that some citizens are able to penetrate these databases to find out what is going on? Thus it could be argued that the CU represent one way in which we can help avoid the creation of a more centralized, even totalitarian government. This is one scenario the CU openly entertain. Indeed, we now know that at the time of the Chernobyl nuclear power station disaster in the former Soviet Union, hackers from the Chaos Computer Club released more information to the public about developments than did the West German government itself. All of this information was gained by illegal break-ins carried out in government computer installations. REFERENCESThe Australian, 1988, January 26, Hackers found guilty after cracking Dukes codes. April 29, Lords clear British Hackers. Best, Joel and David F. Luckenbill. 1982. Organizing Deviance. Englewood Cliff, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Bequai, August. 1987. Technocrimes. Lexington, Mass.:Lexington Books. Bickford, Robert. 1988. Personal communication to Gordon Meyer. Chicago Tribune. 1989. Computer hacker, 18, gets prison for fraud. Feb. 15:2,1. Compuserve Magazine, 1994, Viruses: Gone or just forgotten?Forester, Tom and Morrison, Perry, 1990, Computer Ethics, Cautionary Tales and Ethical Dilemmas in Computing. Hollinger, Richard C. and Lonn Lanza-Kaduce. 1988. The Process of Criminalization: The Case of Computer Crime Laws. Criminology 26:101-126. Levy, Steven. 1984. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. New York: Dell Publishing. Message Logs from a variety of computer underground bulletin board systems, 1988-1989. NBC-TV. 1988. Hour Magazine. November 2, 1988. Bill Landreth, 1985, Outside the Inner Circle. Microsoft publishingParker, Donn B. 1983. Fighting Computer Crime. New York: Charles Scribners Sons. Rosenbaum, Ron. 1971. Secrets of the Little Blue Box . Esquire October, pp. 116-125. Small, David. 1988. Personal communication to Gordon Meyer. WGN-Radio. 1988. Ed Schwartz Show. September 27, 1988.